PHOSYNTHESIS :

1- CUTICLE
water proof prvent exessive water loss. transparenr ro allow light to penetarate leaf.

2 UPPER EPIDERMINS
single layer. thin. transparent. allows LIGHT to PENETRATE leaf and REACH the light trapping chloroplast inside. WATCH FOR THE LIGHT TRAP!!!
Epidermal cells doesnt contain chloroplasts therefore sunlight can penetrate easily. remember, CAN pernetrate EASILY because epidermal cells DOESNT contain chloroplasts.

3 VASCULAR BUNDLE.
xylem transports mineral ions and water 2 d leaf.
phloem carries away products of photosynthesis from the leaf.

4 PALISADE MESOPYHLL
cylindrical, packed tighly in an upright positiion under upper epiidermis.  MAKES IT RECEIVE MAX SUNLIGHT.
have HIGH density of CHLOROPLAST, most active cell in photosynthesis. are able to move themselves.

5 SPONGY MESOPYHLL
doesnt have a fixed shape
for increasing the internal surface area for gaseous exchange
looosely aranged between them are air spaces

6 lower epidermis :
doesnt conain choloroplast but got guard cells <enable the opening and closing of stomata

enzyme catalysed reaction
limiting factor

Enzymes got intracellular enzymes and extra cellulare enzymes What are intracellular enzymes? It is produced and retained in the cell for the use of the cell itself. They are foind in? Cytoplasm mitochondria nucleus and chloroplasts Hers an example.. The enzyme oxydoreductase catylyses biological oxidation anc reduction in the mitochondri What ae extracellular enzynes? Enzymes whixh are produced in the cell but secreted from the cell to function externallu Synthesis of enzymes Remember that ribosomes r d sjtes of protein synthesi 6 sequences The info fr the aynthesis of enzymes is carried by DNA *the sequences of bases on the dma are codes to make proteinsb Dikir sequences of bases tu. Codes la, Sequencesbof bases In NUCLEUS DNA double helox unwinds n exposes its 2 atrands fir yhe synthesise of rna Rna is synthesised axxording to the instructin of dna Then messenger rna leaves nuckeus to tbe ribosome Then it attaches itself to the ribosome Ribosome atcs as workbench. Rna contains info of codes ft the synsis if amini acid Genetic infrmation trabalated into d primary structure of specidfojc progein Eaxh amino acid is bo ded to d enxt and as a resultm polypeptides is formed n ready to release to the cytoplasm PRODUCTION OF EXTRACELLUKAR ENZYMES

carbohydrates :
starch : main energy store of carbo in plans
glycogen : in animals and us
cellulose : forms main costituemt of the ell walls. important constituent of fibres.

Steroids are?
 lipids with a complex molecular structure
( cholestrol, testerone, oestrogen, progesterone  )

proteins :

• basic unit = amino acids
• build new cells for growth and renew damaged tissues.
• required for? synthesis of enzymes, antibodies, hormones
• forms strutural components such as keratin in skin, collagen in bones and myosin in muscle tissues.
• its an important components of the plasma membrane 
• involved in synthesis of haemogolobin 

nucleic acid :

• macromolecule which store genetic informations in terms of codes.
• basic unit? nucleotides
• Nucleotide consist of 3 components : nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, phosphate group.

two types of nucleic acid :

1. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) - double stranded nucleic acid. two strands of polynucleotides twisted around each other) forms? double helix. are usually found in the nucleus. but also can be found in mitichondria and choloroplast
2. RNA (ribonucleic acid) - found in the cytoplasm, ribosomes and nucleus

Carbohydrates

MONOSACCAHARIDED
DISACCHARIDES
POLYSACHARIDES

POLYSACCHARIDES -
when theyre linked trough condensation they become long chain of molecules or a polymer.
-condensations of glucose monomers
- insoluble in water (large molecule size)
- aint sweet doest crytalize like disaccharides
-STARCH (found in wheat, rice, potato, bread, corn) (main energy storage compound in plants) (iodine test is carried out to test the presence in starch)
- GLYCOGEN (animal starch) (main reserve of carbo in animals and yeast) (liver and muscle cells)
- CELLULOSE (amke cell walls)
- poly Can be broken down by adding DILUTE ACIDS, BOILING, TROUGH ENZYME REACTIONS

PROTEINS!!
- are made up of CHONSP
- made up of one or more polymers = POLYPEPTIDES
- POLYPEPTIDES are made of monomers whis is AMINO ACID
- Through CONDENSATION, by a PEPTIDE BOND, TWO MOLECULES OF AMINO ACIDS FORM DIPEPTIDE. one water molecule is removed
-can be broken down to AMINO ACIDS by HYDROLYSIS
- if PROTEIN or POLYPEPTIDES are broken down - absorbed in the blood stream
- then amino acid are used to synthesise protein molecules that are needed by the body

TYPES OF AMINO ACIDS -
-20 naturally ocuring amino acids;
ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
-Animals, us, are FIRST CLASS PROTEIN (they contain  all the essential amino acids needed by the body
- Plants - SECOND CLASS PROTEINS (dont contain al amino acid)

what are essential amino acids?
- amino acids that cant be synthesized by the body.
- LEUCINE. dont make a scene with eugene huhu
- 9 other essential amino acids. can oly be obtained frm a healthy diet

what are non essential amino acids?
- can be synthesised by the body
- 11 non essentials

PROTEIN STRUCTURES.
got 4

primary structures, secondary structures, tertiary structures, quarternary structures.

secondary structures : specific linear sequence
secondary structures - polypeptide chain that is coiled to form an alpha-helix chain. folded,  beta pleated sheets. they are held together by hydrogen bonds

tertiary : then alpha and beta tu  coiled and folded lagi into a 3D shape. (plasma, antibodies and plasma proteins)

quarternary : 2 or more tertiart srucrfure polypeptide chains are arange to form a complex and fuctinal proten molecule (haemoglobin)

LIPIDS (CHO)
-FATS AND OILS
* they are TRIGLYCERIDES
- triglycerides are esters that's formed throigh condensation of one molecule of glycoden 3 fatty acids
- each molecule of fatty acid consists of a long hydrocarbon change w a diff number of carbon atoms
SATURATED FATS - saturated fatty acids (solid at room temp)
UNSATURATED FATS - unsaturated fatty acid (liquid like oil)

al-islah,

bahasa : pembaikan

istilah : pembaikan atau perubahan terancang ke arah yang kebih ba=ik

to pelajar - keperluan alislah 4 memperoleh kecapaian yang mantap

yakinkan umat islam islam is the best

bentuk2

gila2 dekat mazhab no good

pay attention to get free penjajah world

tadbir dgn sunnah and alquran

Faktor2 penyebaran islam : dalaman and luaran

dalaman :

ramai penduduk tertarik.

Baghdad menjadi tumpuan dalam bidang keilumuan dan perdangangan antarabangsa.

something related to baitulmal

luaran :

bahasa arab dispread so ada interest nak study alquran and Hadis

hubungan diplomatik antara kerajaan abbasiyah && negara luar

they berdakwah menerusi aktiviti perdangan mereka

khalifah

1) Abu Abbas Al-Safah

- khalifah pertama

- perintak for 4 years 9 months

Sumbangannya -

mengasaskan kerajaan abbasiah

menghapuskan pemberontakan

2) Abu Jaafar Al- mansur

Saudara kndung Al-safah

khalifah for 22 years

sumbangan :

banghdad as ibu kota & membangunkannya

baiki sistem cukai.

membuat saliran2

menyediakan pasar2 d tempat yang strategik

3_ Harun ar-rasyid

khalifah paling warak && terkenal

sumbangan :

memerintah al-Qadhi Yusuf to witre kitap al-kharaj.

membina ; alqadhi alqadha (ketua hakim)

menubuhkan baitul hikmah. baitul hikmah. baitul hikma. baitul hikmah. (pusat perkembangan)

menjadikan baghdad sebagai pusat perdagangan ilmu pengetahuan

4) Al-Makmun

Abdullah Abul Abbas Al-Makmun.

anak Harum

memrintah for 20years

sumbangan :

galakkan usaha pnterjemahan

menyediakan sholarships/

because of kita spread aga,a

more ppl masuk islam and less ppl sembah berhala

tertarik that we dont semnbah manusia.

banyak masjid dibina

sewa :

bahasa : menyewakan sesuatu

istilah : sesuatu PERJANJIAN yang membawa faedah dari satu barang yang diterima oleh orang lain dengan bayaran yang sesuai n perjanjian yang ditentukan.

hukum sewa : harus

sewa ada 2 jenis. Sewa manfaat dan upah bekerja.

Sewa manfaat -

seperti sewa bilik, rumah, kendai, binatang tungganan,

upah bekerja -

buruh binaan, tukang jahit, tukang kasut.

rukun sewa :

penyewa & pemberi sewa

bayaran sewa

faedah sewa

ijab dan kabul

syarat2 sah sewa & pemberi sewa

berakal n baligh

kehendak sendiri

2 2 x sifat membazir

syarat sah bayaran :

pay w money

both tau the price

setuju dgn the price.

syrat faedah :

berharga

payable

kadar dan jangka masa sewa kena tahu